Ancient Greek and Roman public speaking teachers divided rhetoric into five topics, which we call canons. Do they relate to modern speaking methods? The idea was that a public speaker needed to master all five canons. Although there are hints of the system in Aristotle’s Ars Rhetorica, they were first explained precisely in Cicero’s De Inventione. It seems unlikely that Cicero invented the system, but he gets the credit because his book explains the canons so well. Although Cicero’s exact system is no longer used, almost all public speaking textbooks today offer something like a modern version of the five canons to help students master the different arts of public speaking, each in its turn.
The First Canon: Inventio (Invention, or Content, or Ideas and Proof)
In modern terms, when we say that a speaker invented something, we mean to insult the speaker. As a canon of rhetoric, however, invention means the speech’s content. Today, we would call it research and preparation. Invention, in Cicero’s sense, includes the facts, examples, and information that a speaker presents. Cicero said that, “Invention, is the conceiving of topics either true or probable, which may make one's cause appear probable.” A modern speaker would treat research and audience analysis as part of invention. Invention also includes the speaker’s reasoning and argument. Aristotle talked about the three modes of persuasion, logos, ethos, and pathos. Those would, no doubt, also fall under invention.
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The Second Canon: Dispositio (Disposition, or Arrangement, or Organization)
How will the speaker’s ideas be organized to get the greatest persuasive effect? For example, do we put our most important point first, or last? Do we narrate important events in order? Do we discuss the first event first, or put it at the end to get the most effect? Or do we organize by topics? These are all organizational questions. As Cicero explains, “An arrangement of the subjects to be mentioned in an argument, when properly made, renders the whole oration clear and intelligible.”
Beginning speakers often think that organization is boring and tedious. Nothing could be more wrong. Organization is not just a matter of following rules. The idea of organization is to create an effect on the listener. The speaker wants points to build in the audience’s mind until the audience not only understands a speaker, but becomes convinced that the speaker is right. Similarly, when we talk about framing, we are sometimes also talking about organization.
William D. Harpine holds the title of Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of South Carolina Aiken.
How will the speaker’s ideas be organized to get the greatest persuasive effect? For example, do we put our most important point first, or last? Do we narrate important events in order? Do we discuss the first event first, or put it at the end to get the most effect? Or do we organize by topics? These are all organizational questions. As Cicero explains, “An arrangement of the subjects to be mentioned in an argument, when properly made, renders the whole oration clear and intelligible.”
Beginning speakers often think that organization is boring and tedious. Nothing could be more wrong. Organization is not just a matter of following rules. The idea of organization is to create an effect on the listener. The speaker wants points to build in the audience’s mind until the audience not only understands a speaker, but becomes convinced that the speaker is right. Similarly, when we talk about framing, we are sometimes also talking about organization.
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The Third Canon: Elocutio (Elocution, or Language and Style)
One must be careful here, for “elocution” has meant different things during different periods of rhetorical history. Here, elocution is language. Speakers can use fancy, eloquent language (think about Lincoln’s Gettysburg address, or any speech of Daniel Webster), or they can speak in simple, clear terms (think about most present-day American politicians). Cicero is, however, absolutely right that the most important goal is to use clear language. If the audience does not understand the speaker, nothing else matters. Cicero puts it this way: “For it often happens that the truth is but little understood, more by reason of the prolixity of the speaker, than of the obscurity of the statement. And it is desirable to use clear language, which is a point to be dwelt upon when we come to precepts for elocution.” In other words, unclear language is the main reason that audiences don’t get the point.
The Third Canon: Elocutio (Elocution, or Language and Style)
One must be careful here, for “elocution” has meant different things during different periods of rhetorical history. Here, elocution is language. Speakers can use fancy, eloquent language (think about Lincoln’s Gettysburg address, or any speech of Daniel Webster), or they can speak in simple, clear terms (think about most present-day American politicians). Cicero is, however, absolutely right that the most important goal is to use clear language. If the audience does not understand the speaker, nothing else matters. Cicero puts it this way: “For it often happens that the truth is but little understood, more by reason of the prolixity of the speaker, than of the obscurity of the statement. And it is desirable to use clear language, which is a point to be dwelt upon when we come to precepts for elocution.” In other words, unclear language is the main reason that audiences don’t get the point.
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The Fourth Canon: Memoria (Memory? Or Speech Preparation?)
The custom in ancient times was to memorize a speech. So, ancient public speaking textbooks included detailed lessons about how to memorize a long speech. That’s unusual today. Most public speaking teachers actually forbid students from memorizing a speech. Memorized speeches often sound unnatural. Memorized speeches are still common in high school and college speech contests. Today, however, public speaking textbooks are likely to have a chapter about speech preparation rather than one about memorization. We could say that such techniques as using note cards and teleprompters, working from an outline, and so forth are what most modern speakers use instead of memorization. Many speakers read from a manuscript to avoid memorization. Public speaking teachers usually think that is a bad idea because it interferes with audience interaction.
The Fifth Canon: Actio (Delivery)
Ancient and modern speakers alike know how important good speech delivery is. Delivery includes the use of gestures, body motions, and the voice. Effective delivery not only helps speakers keep the audience’s attention, but also emphasizes key points. I love Cicero’s definition: “Delivery, is a regulating of the voice and body in a manner suitable to the dignity of the subjects spoken of and of the language employed.” Yes, delivery should reflect the dignity of the occasion. A light-hearted speech at a family picnic calls for different delivery than a funeral speech. A company report calls for one style of delivery, while an after-dinner speech could sound a little more fun.
The Fourth Canon: Memoria (Memory? Or Speech Preparation?)
The custom in ancient times was to memorize a speech. So, ancient public speaking textbooks included detailed lessons about how to memorize a long speech. That’s unusual today. Most public speaking teachers actually forbid students from memorizing a speech. Memorized speeches often sound unnatural. Memorized speeches are still common in high school and college speech contests. Today, however, public speaking textbooks are likely to have a chapter about speech preparation rather than one about memorization. We could say that such techniques as using note cards and teleprompters, working from an outline, and so forth are what most modern speakers use instead of memorization. Many speakers read from a manuscript to avoid memorization. Public speaking teachers usually think that is a bad idea because it interferes with audience interaction.
The Fifth Canon: Actio (Delivery)
Ancient and modern speakers alike know how important good speech delivery is. Delivery includes the use of gestures, body motions, and the voice. Effective delivery not only helps speakers keep the audience’s attention, but also emphasizes key points. I love Cicero’s definition: “Delivery, is a regulating of the voice and body in a manner suitable to the dignity of the subjects spoken of and of the language employed.” Yes, delivery should reflect the dignity of the occasion. A light-hearted speech at a family picnic calls for different delivery than a funeral speech. A company report calls for one style of delivery, while an after-dinner speech could sound a little more fun.
So, there we have a quick rundown of the five canons. In today’s terms, we might call them (1) speech content, (2) organization, (3) language and style, (4) memorization (speech preparation?), and (5) delivery. By mastering each of these five, a person can become a better public speaker. Yes, with some modernization, they still work today.
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For Further Reading:
Several good books talk about ancient Greek and Roman rhetorical theory. For the serious student, George A. Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times, is probably indispensable. Kennedy’s earlier books are also worth reading, although the modern reader might skip the first couple pages of them. Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee’s textbook Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students might be more accessible.
It is far out of date, but I still have a soft spot for Charles Sears Baldwin, Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic: Interpreted from Representative Works. It may be hard to believe, but he tried to make ancient rhetoric sound like fun.
_________________
For Further Reading:
Several good books talk about ancient Greek and Roman rhetorical theory. For the serious student, George A. Kennedy, Classical Rhetoric and Its Christian and Secular Tradition from Ancient to Modern Times, is probably indispensable. Kennedy’s earlier books are also worth reading, although the modern reader might skip the first couple pages of them. Sharon Crowley and Debra Hawhee’s textbook Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary Students might be more accessible.
It is far out of date, but I still have a soft spot for Charles Sears Baldwin, Ancient Rhetoric and Poetic: Interpreted from Representative Works. It may be hard to believe, but he tried to make ancient rhetoric sound like fun.
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William D. Harpine holds the title of Distinguished Professor Emeritus at the University of South Carolina Aiken.
Updated 14 July 2023
Ó Copyright 2021-2023, William D. Harpine
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